UPSC Combined Geo-Scientist & Geologist Exam Syllabus 2021 PDF

UPSC Combined Geo-Scientist & Geologist Exam Syllabus 2021 Check Here: The Union Public Service Commission has announced the Syllabus and Exam Pattern for Geologist & Scientist B (Hydrogeology), Geophysicist and Scientist ‘B’(Geophysics), and Chemist and Scientist ‘B’(Chemical) posts. The Combined Geo-Scientist (Prelims) Examination, 2022  will be scheduled on 20.02.2022 and 22.02.2022. For the sake of candidates, We have attached the direct download link below. By referring to this page candidates can get an idea about UPSC Combined Geo-Scientist & Geologist Exam 2021.

UPSC Combined Geo-Scientist & Geologist Syllabus 2021 – details

Download UPSC Combined Geo-Scientist & Geologist Syllabus 2021 & Exam Pattern 2021
Organization	Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)
Post Name	Geologist & Scientist B (Hydrogeology), Geophysicist and Scientist ‘B’(Geophysics), and Chemist and Scientist ‘B’(Chemical)
Exam Name	Combined Geo-Scientist (Main) Examination, 2022
Category	Syllabus
Exam Date	20.02.2022 and 22.02.2022
Syllabus	Available Now
Official website	upsc.gov.in

UPSC Combined Geo-Scientist Exam 2021 Pattern

Stage-I: Combined Geo-Scientist (Preliminary) Examination

Stream-II: Geophysicist and Scientist ‘B’(Geophysics)

Stream-III: Chemist and Scientist ‘B’(Chemical)

Stage-II: Combined Geo-Scientist (Main) Exam Pattern

Stream-I: Geologist

Stream-II: Geophysicist and Scientist ‘B’ (Geophysics)

Stream-III: Chemist & Scientist ‘B’ (Chemical)

Stream-IV: Scientist ‘B’(Hydrogeology)

UPSC Combined Geo-Scientist Exam Syllabus 2021

Combined Geo-Scientist (Preliminary) Examination:

Paper-I: General Studies (Common for all streams)

• Current events of national and international importance.
• History of India and Indian National Movement.
• Indian and World Geography -Physical, Social, Economic Geography of India and the World.
• Indian Polity and Governance -Constitution, Political System, Panchayati Raj, Public Policy, Rights Issues, etc.
• Economic and Social Development – Sustainable Development, Poverty, Inclusion, Demographics, Social Sector initiatives, etc.
• General issues on Environmental Ecology, Bio-diversity, and Climate Change that do not require subject specialization
• General Science.

Paper-II: Geology/Hydrogeology)

Physical Geology Principle of uniformitarian’s; origin, differentiation and internal structure of the Earth; origin of the atmosphere; earthquakes and volcanoes; continental drift, sea-floor spreading, isostasy, orogeny, and plate tectonics; geological action of rivers, wind, glaciers, waves; erosional and depositional landforms; weathering processes and products.

Structural Geology: Stress, strain, and rheological properties of rocks; planar and linear structures; classification of folds and faults; Mohr’s circle and criteria for failure of rocks; ductile and brittle shear in rocks; study of toposheets, V-rules and outcrop patterns; stereographic projections of structural elements.

Mineralogy: Elements of symmetry, notations, and indices; Bravais lattices; chemical classification of minerals; isomorphism, polymorphism, solid solution and exsolution; silicate structures; physical and optical properties of common rock-forming minerals- olivine, garnet, pyroxene, amphibole, mica, feldspar, and quartz.

Igneous Petrology: Magma types and their evolution; IUGS classification of igneous rocks; forms, structures, and textures of igneous rocks; applications of binary and ternary phase diagrams in petrogenesis; magmatic differentiation and assimilation; petrogenesis of granites, basalts, komatiites, and alkaline rocks (carbonatite, kimberlite, lamprophyre and nepheline syenite).

Metamorphic Petrology: Limits, types, and controls of metamorphism; metamorphic structures- slate, schist, and gneiss; metamorphic textures- pre, syn, and post tectonic porphyroblasts; the concept of the metamorphic zone, isograd and facies; geothermal gradients, facies series, and plate tectonics.

Sedimentology Origin of sediments; sedimentary textures, grain-size scale; primary sedimentary structures; classification of sandstone and carbonate rocks; siliciclastic depositional environments and sedimentary facies; diagenesis of carbonate sediments.

Paleontology Fossils and processes of fossilization; the concept of species and binomial nomenclature; morphology and classification of invertebrates (Trilobites, Brachiopods, Lamellibranchs, Gastropods, and Cephalopods); evolution in Equidae and Hominidae; microfossils-Foraminifera, Ostracoda; Gondwana flora.

Stratigraphy Law of superposition; stratigraphic nomenclature- lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy, and chronostratigraphy; Archaean cratonic nuclei of Peninsular India (Dharwar, Singhbhum, and Aravalli cratons); Proterozoic mobile belts (Central Indian Tectonic Zone, Aravalli-Delhi and the Eastern Ghats); Purana sedimentary basins (Cuddapah and Vindhyan); Phanerozoic stratigraphy of IndiaSpiti, Kashmir, Damodar valley, Kutch, Trichinopoly, Siwaliks, and Indo-Gangetic alluvium.

Economic Geology Properties of mineral deposits- form, mineral assemblage, texture, rock-ore association and relationship; magmatic, sedimentary, metamorphic, hydrothermal, supergene, and weathering related processes of ore formation; processes of formation of coal, and petroleum; distribution and geological characteristics of major mineral and hydrocarbon deposits of India.

Hydrogeology Groundwater occurrence and aquifer characteristics, porosity, permeability, hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity; Darcy’s Law in homogenous and heterogeneous media; Bernoulli equation, Reynold’s number; composition of groundwater; application of H and O isotopes in groundwater studies; artificial recharge of groundwater.

Paper-II: Geophysics

Solid Earth Geophysics: Introduction to Geophysics and its branches. Solar system: origin, formation, and characteristics of planets, Earth: shape and rotation. Gravity and magnetic fields of the earth. Geomagnetism, elements of earth’s magnetism, Rock and mineral magnetism, Elastic waves, types and their propagation characteristics, the internal structure of the earth, variation of physical properties in the interior of the earth. Plate tectonics, Earthquakes, and their causes, focal depth, epicenter, Intensity and Magnitude scales, Energy of earthquakes, Seismicity.

Mathematical Methods in Geophysics: Elements of vector analysis, Vector algebra, Properties of scalars, vectors and tensors, Gradient, Divergence and Curl, Gauss’s divergence theorem, Stoke’s theorem. Matrices, Eigenvalues, and Eigenvectors and their applications in geophysics. Newton’s Law of gravitation, Gravity potential, and gravity fields due to bodies of different geometric shapes. Basic Forces of Nature and their strength: Gravitational, Electromagnetic, Strong and Weak forces. Conservation Laws in Physics: Energy, Linear and angular momentum. Rigid body motion and moment of inertia. Basics of the special theory of relativity and Lorentz transformation. Fundamental concepts of inverse theory, Definition of inversion and application to Geophysics. Forward and Inverse problems. Probability theory, Random variables, binomial, Poisson, and normal distributions. Linear algebra, Linear ordinary differential equations of first and second order. Partial differential equations (Laplace, wave, and heat equations in two and three dimensions). Elements of numerical techniques: the root of functions, interpolation, and extrapolation, integration by trapezoid and Simpson’s rule, solution of the first-order differential equation using Runge-Kutta method, Introduction to finite difference, and finite element methods.

Electromagnetism: Electrostatic and magneto-static fields, Coulomb’s law, Electrical permittivity, and dielectric constant, Lorentz force, and their applications. Ampere’s law, Biot and Savart’s law, Gauss’s Theorem, Poisson’s equation. Laplace’s equation: solution of Laplace’s equation in Cartesian coordinates, use of Laplace’s equation in the solutions of geophysical and electrostatic problems. Displacement current, Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Maxwell’s equations. Boundary conditions. Wave equation, plane electromagnetic waves in free space, dielectric and conducting media, electromagnetic vector, and scalar potentials.

Geophysical Prospecting: Elements of geophysical methods: Principles, data reduction, and applications of gravity, magnetic, electrical, electromagnetic, and well logging methods. Fundamentals of seismic methods: Fermat’s Principle, Snell’s Law, Energy portioning, Reflection and transmission coefficients, Reflection and Refraction from layered media. Signals and systems, sampling theorem, aliasing effect, Fourier series and periodic waveforms, Fourier transform and its application, Laplace transforms Convolution, Auto and cross-correlations, Power spectrum, Delta function, unit step function.

Remote Sensing and Thermodynamics: Fundamentals of remote sensing, electromagnetic spectrum, energy- frequency-wavelength relationship, Stefan-Boltzmann Law, Wien’s Law, electromagnetic energy and its interactions in the atmosphere and with terrain features. Planck’s Radiation Law. Laws of thermodynamics and thermodynamic potential.

Nuclear Physics and Radiometry: Basic nuclear properties: size, shape, charge distribution, spin, and parity; Binding energy, semi-empirical mass formula; Fission and fusion. Principles of radioactivity, alpha, beta, and gamma decay Photoelectric and Compton Effect, Pair Production, radioactivity decay law, the radioactivity of rocks and minerals, Radiation Detectors: Ionization chamber, G-M counter, Scintillation counter, and Gamma-ray spectrometer. Matter Waves and wave-particle duality, Electron spin, Spectrum of Hydrogen, helium and alkali atoms.

Paper-II: Chemistry

Chemical periodicity: Schrödinger equation for the H-atom. Radial distribution curves for 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d orbitals. Electronic configurations of multi-electron atoms. Periodic table, group trends, and periodic trends in physical properties. Classification of elements on the basis of electronic configuration. Modern IUPAC Periodic table. General characteristics of s, p, d, and f block elements. Effective nuclear charges, screening effects, atomic radii, ionic radii, covalent radii. Ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, and electronegativity. Group trends and periodic trends in these properties in respect of s-, p- and d-block elements. General trends of variation of electronic configuration, elemental forms, metallic nature, magnetic properties, catenation, and catalytic properties, oxidation states, aqueous and redox chemistry in common oxidation states, properties and reactions of important compounds such as hydrides, halides, oxides, oxy-acids, complex chemistry in respect of s-block and p-block elements.

Chemical bonding and structure: Ionic bonding: Size effects, radius ratio rules, and their limitations. Packing of ions in crystals, lattice energy, Born-Landé equation and its applications, Born-Haber cycle, and its applications. Solvation energy, polarizing power, and polarizability, ionic potential, Fagan’s rules. Defects in solids. Covalent bonding: Valence Bond Theory, Molecular Orbital Theory, hybridization. Concept of resonance, resonance energy, resonance structures. Coordinate bonding: Werner theory of coordination compounds, double salts, and complex salts. Ambidentate and polydentate ligands, chelate complexes. IUPAC nomenclature of coordination compounds. Coordination numbers, Geometrical isomerism. Stereoisomerism in square planar and octahedral complexes.

Acids and bases: Chemical and ionic equilibrium. Strengths of acids and bases. Ionization of weak acids and bases in aqueous solutions, application of Ostwald’s dilution law, ionization constants, ionic product of water, pH-scale, the effect of temperature on pH, buffer solutions and their pH values, buffer action & buffer capacity; different types of buffers and Henderson’s equation.

The theoretical basis of quantitative inorganic analysis: Volumetric Analysis: Equivalent weights, different types of solutions, normal and molar solutions. Primary and secondary standard substances. General principles of different types of titrations: i) acid-base, ii) redox, iii) complexometric, iv) Precipitation. Types of indicators – i) acid-base, ii) redox iii) metal-ion indicators.

Kinetic theory and the gaseous state: Kinetic theory of gases, the average kinetic energy of translation, Boltzmann constant and absolute scale of temperature. Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of speeds. Calculations of average, root mean square, and most probable velocities. Collision diameter; collision number and mean free path; frequency of binary collisions; wall collision and rate of effusion.

Chemical thermodynamics and chemical equilibrium: First law and its applications to chemical problems. Thermodynamic functions. Total differentials and state functions. Free expansion, Joule-Thomson coefficient, and inversion temperature. Hess’ law. Applications of Second law of thermodynamics. Gibbs function (G) and Helmholtz function (A), Gibbs-Helmholtz equation, criteria for thermodynamic equilibrium, and spontaneity of chemical processes.

Solutions of non-electrolytes: Colligative properties of solutions, Raoult’s Law, relative lowering of vapor pressure, osmosis and osmotic pressure; elevation of boiling point and depression of freezing point of solvents. Solubility of gases in liquids and solid solutions.

Electrochemistry: Cell constant, specific conductance, and molar conductance. Kohlrausch’s law of independent migration of ions, ion conductance, and ionic mobility. Equivalent and molar conductance at infinite dilution. Debye-Hückel theory. Application of conductance measurements. Conductometric titrations. Determination of transport number by moving boundary method.

Basic organic chemistry: Delocalized chemical bond, resonance, conjugation, hyperconjugation, hybridization, orbital pictures of bonding sp3, sp2, sp: C-C, C-N, and C-O system), bond polarization, and bond polarizability. Reactive intermediates: General methods of formation, relative stability, and reactivity of carbocations, carbanions, and free radicals.

Stereochemistry: Configuration and chirality (simple treatment of elements of symmetry), optical isomerism of compounds containing two to three stereogenic centers, R, S nomenclature, geometrical isomerism in compounds containing two C=C double bonds (E, Z naming), and simple cyclic systems, Newman projection (ethane and substituted ethane).

Types of organic reactions:

Aliphatic substitution reactions: SN1, SN2 mechanisms, stereochemistry, relative reactivity in aliphatic substitutions. Effect of substrate structure, attacking nucleophile, leaving group and reaction medium, and competitive reactions.

Elimination reactions: E1, E2, mechanisms, stereochemistry, relative reactivity in aliphatic eliminations. Effect of substrate structure, attacking the base, leaving group, reaction medium and competitive reactions, the orientation of the double bond, Saytzeff and Hoffman rules.

Addition reactions: Electrophilic, nucleophilic, and radical addition reactions at carbon-carbon double bonds.

Electrophilic and nucleophilic aromatic substitution: Electrophilic (halogenation, sulphonation, nitration, Friedel-Crafts alkylation, and acylation), nucleophilic (simple SNAr, SN1, and aryne reactions).

Molecular Rearrangements: acid-induced rearrangement and Wagner-Meerwein rearrangements. Neighboring group participation.

Combined Geo-Scientist (Main) Examination:

Stage-II (Descriptive Type) Geology: Paper-I

Section A. Physical geology and remote sensing Evolution of Earth; Earth’s internal structure; earthquakes and volcanoes; principles of geodesy, isostasy; weathering- processes and products; geomorphic landforms formed by the action of rivers, wind, glaciers, waves, and groundwater; features of the ocean floor; continental shelf, slope, and rise; concepts of landscape evolution; major geomorphic features of India- coastal, peninsular and extra peninsular. Electromagnetic spectrum; electromagnetic bands in remote sensing; spectral signatures of soil, rock, water, and vegetation; thermal, near infra-red and microwave remote sensing; digital image processing; LANDSAT, IRS and SPOT- characteristics and use; aerial photos- types, scale, parallax, relief displacement; elements of image interpretation.

Section B. Structural geology Principles of geological mapping; kinematic and dynamic analysis of deformation; stress-strain relationships for elastic, plastic, and viscous materials; measurement of strain in deformed rocks; structural analysis of fold, cleavage, boudin, lineation, joint, and fault; stereographic projection of linear and planar structures; superposed deformation; deformation at microscale- dynamic and static recrystallization, controls of strain rate and temperature on the development of microfabrics; brittle and ductile shear zones; time relationship between crystallization and deformation, calculation of paleo stress.

Section C. Sedimentology Classification of sedimentary rocks; sedimentary textures-grain size, roundness, sphericity, shape and fabric; quantitative grain size analysis; sediment transport and deposition- fluid and sediment gravity flows, laminar and turbulent flows, Reynold’s number, Froude number, grain entrainment, Hjulstrom diagram, bedload and suspension load transport; primary sedimentary structures; penecontemporaneous deformation structure; biogenic structures; principles and application of paleocurrent analysis; composition and significance of different types of sandstone, limestone, banded iron formation, mudstone, conglomerate; carbonate diagenesis and dolomitisation; sedimentary environments and facies-facies models for fluvial, glacial, deltaic, siliciclastic shallow and deep marine environments; carbonate platforms- types and facies models; sedimentation in major tectonic settings; principles of sequence stratigraphy-concepts, and factors controlling base level changes, parasequence, clinoform, systems tract, unconformity and sequence boundary.

Section D. Paleontology Fossil record and geological time scale; modes of preservation of fossils and concept of taphonomy; body- and ichnofossils, species concept, organic evolution, Ediacaran Fauna; morphology and time range of Graptolites, Trilobites, Brachiopods, Lamellibranchs, Gastropods, Cephalopods, Echinoids and Corals; evolutionary trends in Trilobites, Lamellibranchs, Gastropods and Cephalopods; micropaleontology- methods of preparation of microfossils, the morphology of microfossil groups (Foraminifera, Ostracoda), fossil spores, pollen, and dinoflagellates; Gondwana plant fossils and their significance; vertebrate life through ages, evolution in Proboscidea, Equidae and Hominidae; applications of paleontological data in stratigraphy, paleoecology, and paleoclimatology; mass extinctions.

Section E. Stratigraphy Principles of stratigraphy-code of stratigraphic nomenclature of India; lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy, chronostratigraphy, and magnetostratigraphy; principles of stratigraphic correlation; characteristics of Archean granite-greenstone belts; Indian stratigraphy- geological evolution of Archean nucleii (Dharwar, Bastar, Singhbhum, Aravalli and Bundelkhand); Proterozoic mobile belts Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt, Southern Granulite Terrain, Central Indian Tectonic Zone, Aravalli-Delhi Belt, North Singhbhum Mobile Belt; Proterozoic sedimentary basins (Cuddapah and Vindhyan); Phanerozoic stratigraphy- Paleozoic (Spiti, Kashmir, and Kumaon), Mesozoic (Spiti, Kutch, Narmada Valley, and Trichinopoly), Gondwana Supergroup, Cenozoic (Assam, Bengal basins, Garhwal-Shimla Himalayas); Siwaliks; boundary problems in Indian stratigraphy.

Geology: Paper-II

Section A. Mineralogy Symmetry, motif, Miller indices; the concept of the unit cell and Bravais lattices; 32 crystal classes; types of bonding, Pauling’s rules and coordination polyhedra; crystal imperfections-defects, twinning and zoning; polymorphism, pseudomorphism, isomorphism, and solid solution; physical properties of minerals; polarising microscope and accessory plate; optical properties of minerals- double refraction, polarisation, pleochroism, a sign of elongation, interference figure and optic sign; structure, composition, physical and optical properties of major rock-forming minerals- olivine, garnet, aluminosilicates, pyroxene, amphibole, mica, feldspar, clay, silica, and spinel group.

Section B. Geochemistry and isotope geology Chemical composition and characteristics of atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere; geochemical cycles; meteorites-types and composition; Goldschmidt’s classification of elements; fractionation of elements in minerals/rocks; Nernst’s partition coefficient (compatible and incompatible elements), Nernst-Berthelot partition coefficient and bulk partition coefficient; Fick’s laws of diffusion and activity composition relation (Raoult’s and Henry’s law); application of trace elements in petrogenesis; principles of equilibrium and Rayleigh fractionation; REE patterns, Eh and pH diagrams and mineral stability. Half-life and decay equation; dating of minerals and rocks with potassium-argon, rubidium-strontium, uranium-lead, and samarium-neodymium isotopes; petrogenetic implications of samarium-neodymium and rubidium-strontium systems; stable isotope geochemistry of carbon, oxygen, and sulfur and their applications in geology; monazite chemical dating.

Section C. Igneous petrology Viscosity, temperature and pressure relationships in magmas; IUGS classification of plutonic and volcanic rocks; nucleation and growth of minerals in magmatic rocks, development of igneous textures; magmatic evolution (differentiation, assimilation, mixing and mingling); types of mantle melting (batch, fractional and dynamic); binary (albite-anorthite, forsterite-silica and diopsideanorthite) and ternary (diopside-forsterite-silica, diopside-forsterite-anorthite and nephelinekalsilite-silica) phase diagrams and relevance to magmatic crystallization; petrogenesis of granites, basalts, ophiolite suite, komatiites, syenites, bonnets, anorthosites, and layered complexes, and alkaline rocks (carbonatite, kimberlite, lamproite, lamprophyre); mantle metasomatism, hotspot magmatism and large igneous provinces of India.

Section D. Metamorphic petrology Limits and Physico-chemical controls (pressure, temperature, fluids and bulk rock composition) of metamorphism; concept of zones, facies, isograds and facies series, geothermal gradients and tectonics of orogenic belts; structures, microstructures and textures of regional and contact metamorphic rocks; representation of metamorphic assemblages (ACF, AKF and AFM diagrams); equilibrium concept in thermodynamics; laws of thermodynamics, enthalpy, entropy, Gibb’s free energy, chemical potential, fugacity and activity; tracing the chemical reactions in P-T space, phase rule and mineralogical phase rule in multi-component system; Clausius-Clapeyron equation and slopes of metamorphic reactions; heat flow, diffusion and mass transfer; Fourier’s law of heat conduction; geothermobarometry; mass and energy change during fluid-rock interactions; charnockite problem, formation of skarns, progressive and retrogressive metamorphism of pelitic, calcareous and basic rocks; P-T-t path and tectonic setting.

Section E. Geodynamics Phase transitions and seismic discontinuities in the Earth; seismic waves and relation between Vp, Vs, and density; seismic and petrological Moho; rheology of rocks and fluids (Newtonian and nonNewtonian liquids); rock magnetism and its origin; polarity reversals, polar wandering and supercontinent cycles; continental drift, seafloor spreading; gravity and magnetic anomalies of ocean floors and their significance; mantle plumes and their origin; plate tectonics- types of plate boundaries and their inter-relationship; heat flow and heat production of the crust.

Geology: Paper-III Section A.

Economic geology Ore minerals and industrial minerals; physical and optical properties of ore minerals; ore textures and paragenesis; characteristics of mineral deposits- spatial and temporal distribution, rock-ore association; syngenetic and epigenetic deposits, forms of ore bodies, stratiform and strata-bound deposits; ore-forming processes- source and migration of ore constituents and ore fluid, mechanism of ore deposition; magmatic and pegmatitic deposits (chromite, Ti-magnetite, diamond, Cu-Ni sulphide, PGE, REE, muscovite, rare metals); hydrothermal deposits (porphyry Cu-Mo, greisen SnW, skarn, VMS and SEDEX type sulphide deposits, orogenic gold); sedimentary deposits (Fe, Mn, phosphorite, placer); supergene deposits (Cu, Al, Ni and Fe); metamorphic and metamorphosed deposits (Mn, graphite); fluid inclusions in ore mineral assemblage- physical and chemical properties, microthermometry; stable isotope (S, C, O, H) in ore genesis- geothermometry, source of ore constituents; global tectonics and mineralisation.

Section B. Indian mineral deposits and mineral economics Distribution of mineral deposits in Indian shield; geological characteristics of important industrial mineral and ore deposits in India- chromite, diamond, muscovite, Cu-Pb-Zn, Sn-W, Au, Fe-Mn, bauxite; minerals used in refractory, fertilizer, ceramic, cement, glass, paint industries; minerals used as abrasive, filler; building stones. Strategic, critical and essential minerals; India’s status in mineral production; co-products and byproducts; consumption, substitution, and conservation of minerals; National Mineral Policy; Mineral Concession Rules; marine mineral resources and laws of the sea. Section C. Mineral exploration Stages of exploration; scope, objectives, and methods of prospecting, regional exploration, and detailed exploration; geological, geochemical and geobotanical methods; litho-, bio-, soil geochemical surveys, mobility and dispersion of elements, geochemical anomalies; ore controls and guides;

Section D. Fuel geology and Engineering geology Coal and its properties; proximate and ultimate analysis; different varieties and ranks of coal; the concept of coal maturity, peat, lignite, bituminous and anthracite coal; origin of coal, coalification process; lithotypes, microlithotypes and maceral groups of coal; mineral and organic matter in coal; lignite and coal deposits of India; origin, migration, and entrapment of natural hydrocarbons; characteristics of the source and reservoir rocks; structural, stratigraphic and mixed traps; geological, geochemical and geophysical methods of hydrocarbon exploration; petroliferous basins of India; geological characteristics and genesis of major types of U deposits and their distribution in India. . Engineering properties of rocks; geological investigations in construction of dams, reservoirs, tunnels, bridges, highways, and coastal protection structures; geologic considerations of construction materials.

Section E. Environmental geology and Natural hazards Stefan-Boltzmann equation and planetary temperature; cause and effects of global climate change; Earth’s radiation budget; greenhouse gases and effect; examples of positive and negative feedback mechanisms; the biogeochemical cycle of carbon; geological investigations of nuclear waste disposal sites; marginal marine environments- estuaries, mangroves, and lagoons; ozone hole depletion, ocean acidification, coral bleaching, Milankovitch cycle, sea-level rise, eutrophication, and acid rain; environmental impacts of urbanization, mining and hydropower projects; water pollution, waterlogging and soil erosion; Himalayan glaciers; causes and consequences of earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunami, floods, landslides, coastal erosion, droughts and desertification; application of remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) in environmental management.

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